Formation of the complete virus particle (proteins and genome RNA assembly) occurs in ER-Golgi apparatus compartment. S, E, and M proteins enter the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and nucleoprotein complex formation occurs from the combination of nucleocapsid (N) protein and genomic RNA (positive strand). These mRNAs are translated to several proteins (S, M, N, etc.) essential for the construction of viral assembly. Following the entry, there is the proteolytic cleavage of the virus envelope ensuing in the release of genomic RNA in the cytoplasm, and smaller RNAs (вЂњsubgenomic mRNAsвЂќ) are made. (I) SARS-CoV-2 life cycle: The viral S protein binds to the ACE2 receptor of the host. SARS-CoV-2 structure and pathophysiology. (29в€’31) The life cycle of SARS-CoV-2 explaining the entire pathophysiology mechanism is detailed in ( Figure 1, I). (28) At least six open reading frames are present in a typical CoV genome that encode for the production of subgenomic RNAs, 16 nonstructural proteins (nsps), and structural proteins (spike, membrane, envelope, and nucleocapsid protein).

Cellular proteases control the viral entry mechanism by splitting the spike protein and initiating further penetration mechanisms. (21в€’27) The angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the key receptor for entry of SARS-CoV-2 in the cells of the host. (10) The integrity of the SARS-CoV particle is maintained by four proteins: (i) The S protein (Spike glycoprotein) that enables the attachment of the virus to host cells followed by membrane fusion, hence, promoting the entry of SARS-CoV into the host cells (ii) the abundant M protein (membrane) that maintains the membrane integrity of the viral particle (iii) the E protein (envelope) is the smallest protein and plays a structural role and helps in assembly and budding and (iv) the N protein (nucleocapsid) predominantly binds to the SARS-CoV RNA and supports nucleocapsid formation. The SARS-CoV-2 genome is 80% identical to the SARS-CoV and 96% to the BatCoV RaTG13. SARS-CoV-2 has a single-stranded RNA genome of approximately 34 kilobases and a nucleocapsid of helical symmetry. Vital organs including cardiac, liver, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and the central nervous system (CNS) may also be affected, causing multiple organ complicacies. (12) This is the more contagious virus in its class and majorly affects the lower respiratory system initiating viral pneumonia.

(11) Fever, dry cough, fatigue, and difficulty in breathing are among the initial symptoms of a SARS-CoV-2 infected patient. (10) The same coronavirus class was responsible for the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). The causative agent behind the COVID-19 pandemic belongs to the beta class. The word вЂњcoronavirusвЂќ is named for the club-shaped protein spikes on their surface when viewed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM).

The membrane envelops encapsulating the viral genome are decorated with glycoprotein spike transmembrane proteins. We discuss recent as well as ongoing nanotechnology-based therapeutic and prophylactic strategies to fight against this pandemic, outlining the key areas for nanoscientists to step in.ДЄlpha, beta, gamma and delta are the four classes of the coronavirus (CoV) family, all featuring a single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome. Nanocarriers have potential to design risk-free and effective immunization strategies for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccine candidates such as protein constructs and nucleic acids. Controlling and eliminating the spread and reoccurrence of this pandemic demands a safe and effective vaccine strategy. This strategy directs the safe and effective delivery of available therapeutic options using engineered nanocarriers, blocking the initial interactions of viral spike glycoprotein with host cell surface receptors, and disruption of virion construction. Nano intervention is discussed in terms of designing effective nanocarriers to counter the conventional limitations of antiviral and biological therapeutics. The role of nanotechnology is highly relevant to counter this вЂњvirusвЂќ nano enemy. The current global health threat by the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) requires an urgent deployment of advanced therapeutic options available.

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